1. Arrival of Europeans in India

European powers came to India mainly to control the profitable trade in spices, textiles and other goods.

Important Facts

• Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut in 1498 with the help of a local guide.
• Francisco de Almeida introduced the Blue Water Policy.
• Alfonso de Albuquerque captured Goa in 1510.
• The English established their first important factory at Surat in 1613.
• The French centre in India was Pondicherry.

2. Expansion of British Power in India

Battle of Plassey, 1757

The Battle of Plassey was fought between the forces of Siraj-ud-daulah and the English East India Company led by Robert Clive.

• It was fought on 23 June 1757.
• Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-daulah.
• Mir Jafar played an important role in the defeat of Siraj-ud-daulah.
• It marked a major turning point in the establishment of British political power in Bengal.

Battle of Buxar, 1764

The Battle of Buxar was fought between the British East India Company and the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-daulah and Shah Alam II.

• It was fought on 22 October 1764.
• The British victory strengthened their control over Bengal and Bihar.
• The Treaty of Allahabad was signed in 1765.
• The Company received the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

Methods of Expansion

3. British Administration and Important Acts

4. Economic Impact of British Rule

British economic policies transformed Indian agriculture, industries, trade and traditional occupations.

Land Revenue Systems

• Permanent Settlement: Introduced in Bengal in 1793 under Lord Cornwallis; zamindars were recognised as revenue collectors.
• Ryotwari System: Associated with Thomas Munro and introduced in parts of Madras and Bombay; revenue was collected directly from cultivators.
• Mahalwari System: Associated with Holt Mackenzie; revenue was assessed on the basis of villages or estates.

Drain of Wealth

Dadabhai Naoroji explained how wealth was transferred from India to Britain without an adequate economic return. His ideas were presented prominently in Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.

Deindustrialisation

Indian handicrafts and traditional industries declined due to competition from machine-made British goods, discriminatory policies and changes in the colonial economy.

5. Social and Religious Reform Movements

Important Reform Measures

• Sati was abolished in 1829 during the administration of Lord William Bentinck.
• The Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act was passed in 1856.
• Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar strongly supported widow remarriage.
• Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule worked for education and social equality.

6. Revolt of 1857

The Revolt of 1857 was a major uprising against British rule. It began at Meerut on 10 May 1857 and spread to several regions of northern and central India.

Causes

• Political annexations and the Doctrine of Lapse.
• Economic exploitation of peasants, artisans and landlords.
• Discontent among Indian soldiers.
• Social and religious fears.
• The immediate issue was the controversy over the greased cartridges used with the Enfield rifle.

Important Leaders and Centres

Results

• Company rule ended in 1858.
• Power was transferred to the British Crown.
• The British reorganised the Indian army.
• The policy toward Indian princes was modified.
• The revolt became an important symbol of resistance to colonial rule.

7. Rise of Indian Nationalism

Several political, social, economic and intellectual developments contributed to the growth of Indian nationalism.

Factors Behind Nationalism

• Spread of modern education and political ideas.
• Growth of newspapers and public debate.
• Development of railways, telegraph and modern communication.
• Economic criticism of colonial rule.
• Racial discrimination and repressive colonial policies.
• Formation of political associations and organisations.

Formation of the Indian National Congress

• The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885.
• The first session was held in Bombay.
• Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee was the first president.
• A. O. Hume played an important role in its formation.

8. Moderates and Extremists

Moderate Phase: 1885–1905

Moderate leaders used constitutional methods such as petitions, speeches, resolutions and representations to demand reforms.

Important leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Surendranath Banerjee and Pherozeshah Mehta.

Extremist Phase

Extremist leaders emphasised self-reliance, mass mobilisation, boycott and swadeshi.

Lal-Bal-Pal refers to Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal.

Partition of Bengal, 1905

• The partition was announced by Lord Curzon.
• It led to the Swadeshi and Boycott Movements.
• The partition was annulled in 1911.

Surat Split, 1907

The Indian National Congress experienced a split between the Moderates and Extremists at the Surat session in 1907.

9. Gandhian Era

Gandhi’s Return to India

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in 1915. He later became a central figure in the Indian freedom struggle.

Early Satyagrahas

Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh

• The Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919.
• The Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place on 13 April 1919 at Amritsar.
• General Reginald Dyer ordered troops to fire on the gathering.

Non-Cooperation Movement

• Launched in 1920 under Gandhi’s leadership.
• Associated with the Khilafat Movement.
• Withdrawn in 1922 after the Chauri Chaura incident.

Civil Disobedience Movement

• Started with the Salt March in 1930.
• Gandhi began the march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi.
• The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed in 1931.

Individual Satyagraha

Individual Satyagraha was launched in 1940 to affirm the right to freedom of speech and oppose India’s forced involvement in the Second World War.

10. Revolutionary Nationalism

Revolutionary groups used secret organisations, armed actions and political propaganda to challenge British rule.

• Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were active in Bengal.
• Hindustan Republican Association was associated with revolutionary activities in northern India.
• Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqulla Khan were important revolutionaries.
• Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly in 1929 to protest against repressive laws.
• Chandrashekhar Azad was associated with the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association.
• Subhas Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army in its later phase.

Indian National Army

The Indian National Army was initially formed under Mohan Singh and later reorganised and led by Subhas Chandra Bose. Its slogan included “Give me blood, and I will give you freedom.”

11. Constitutional Development

12. Quit India Movement and Independence

Quit India Movement, 1942

• The movement was launched on 8 August 1942 at Bombay.
• Gandhi gave the call of “Do or Die.”
• Most major leaders were arrested soon after the movement began.
• Aruna Asaf Ali played an important role in the movement and hoisted the national flag at Gowalia Tank Maidan.

Road to Independence

• The Cabinet Mission arrived in India in 1946.
• The Constituent Assembly first met on 9 December 1946.
• The Mountbatten Plan was announced on 3 June 1947.
• The Indian Independence Act was passed in July 1947.
• India became independent on 15 August 1947.
• Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of independent India.

13. Modern India: Education, Press and Culture

Education

• Macaulay’s Minute on Education was issued in 1835.
• Wood’s Despatch was issued in 1854 and is often called the “Magna Carta of English Education in India.”
• Universities were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857.

Press and Literature

• Newspapers helped spread political awareness and nationalist ideas.
• The Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878 during Lord Lytton’s administration.
• Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote Anandamath, which includes “Vande Mataram.”
• Rabindranath Tagore wrote Jana Gana Mana.

Important Organisations

• Indian Association: associated with Surendranath Banerjee and Anandamohan Bose.
• All-India Muslim League: founded in 1906 at Dhaka.
• Home Rule Leagues: associated with Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant.
• Forward Bloc: founded by Subhas Chandra Bose in 1939.

Quick Revision: Important Modern History Facts